AFRICAN AMERICAN OLYMPIC ATHLETE, RALPH METCALFE MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY 1934 phot

Description: AFRICAN AMERICAN OLYMPIC ATHLETE, RALPH METCALFE 1934 vintage original photo MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY measuring 6x8 inches Ralph Harold Metcalfe Sr. (May 29, 1910 – October 10, 1978) was an American track and field sprinter and politician. He jointly held the world record in the 100-meter dash and placed second in that event in two Olympics, first to Eddie Tolan in 1932 at Los Angeles and then to Jesse Owens at the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, Germany. Metcalfe won four Olympic medals and was regarded as the world's fastest human in 1934 and 1935.[1] He later went into politics and in the city of Chicago and served in the United States Congress for four terms in the 1970s as a Democrat from Illinois. Contents1Track and field career1.11932 Olympics1.21936 Olympics1.3United States Championships1.4World Records2Military and political career3Death and legacy4Personal5See also6References7External linksTrack and field careerBorn in Atlanta, Georgia, Metcalfe grew up in Chicago and graduated high school from Tilden Tech in 1930.[2] He accepted a track scholarship to Marquette University in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and equaled the record of 10.3 seconds in the 100 m on a number of occasions, as well as equaling the 200 m record of 20.6 seconds. He became the first man to win the NCAA 200 m title three times consecutively.[3] At the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, he virtually dead-heated with his rival Eddie Tolan, with the gold medal awarded to Tolan only after extended study of the photograph; both recorded a time of 10.38 seconds in the 100 meters. Metcalfe also earned a bronze medal at these games, in the 200 meters. He competed again at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin, and again took silver in the 100 meters, this time behind four-time gold medalist Owens. They won gold in the 4×100 meter relay with Foy Draper and Frank Wykoff; the U.S. won by 1.1 seconds over runner-up Italy, and Germany took bronze. Fierce rivals on the track, Metcalfe and Owens (1913–1980) became lifelong friends.[4] 1932 OlympicsMetcalfe was convinced to the end of his life that the 100 m should have been awarded as a tie between him and Eddie Tolan: "I have never been convinced I was defeated. It should have been a tie"[5] Film evidence and that of observers of the race seem to support Metcalfe's verdict. The AAU later changed their rules to have the winner being the first athlete to cross the line not merely breast the tape. It was the latter that Tolan was judged to have done first. The AAU went further and awarded the race as a tie but the International Olympic Committee has never agreed to this change. They maintain the result stands because the judges decided in line with the rules at the time that Eddie Tolan's entire torso had passed the finish line on the ground before Metcalfe's.[6] In addition, even though credited with same time as Tolan, 10.3 s, a time that equaled the then world record, Metcalfe's time was never ratified as a world record. In the 200 m, Metcalfe was embroiled in further controversy. Observers at the time claimed the marking for his starting holes were 3–4 feet behind where they should have been. Others claimed this discrepancy was the result of an optical illusion because George Simpson in the lane outside cut his holes on the outside of his lane whilst Metcalfe used the inside of his. In any case, Metcalfe was offered a re-run but refused because he feared the United States would not be able to repeat its 1-2-3.[6] 1936 Olympics Metcalfe (center) with Jesse Owens and Frank Wykoff on the deck of the S. S. Manhattan as the team sailed for Germany in 1936In the sprint relay, Metcalfe became involved in a controversy not of his own making. Originally the United States chose for the relay the athletes who had come 4th to 7th in the trials. Two of these athletes, Sam Stoller and Marty Glickman, were replaced with Metcalfe and Jesse Owens allegedly because they were Jewish. Metcalfe and Owens were undoubtedly the superior sprinters but they had not done the relay baton practice and the switch went against established practice.[5] United States ChampionshipsMetcalfe was United States Champion at 100 m between 1932-34 (and was 2nd in 1935-36) and at 200 m between 1932-36.[7] In all he won 16 national titles at the AAU Championships, NCAA Championships and Final Olympic Trials.[5][8] World RecordsMetcalfe 16 times broke or equaled world record times at various distances. However, only 5 of these were ever officially ratified by the athletics governing body, the IAAF. The ratified times were:[9] equaled the world record for 100 m of 10.3 s on:12 August 1933 in Budapest, Hungary.15 September 1934 in Nishinomiya, Japan.23 September 1934 in Darien, Japan.equaled the world record for 200 m (straight course) of 20.6 s on 12 August 1933 in Budapest, Hungary.broke the world record for the 4 × 100 m relay with 39.8 s on 9 August 1936 (United States 1936 Olympics team of Jesse Owens-Metcalfe-Foy Draper-Frank Wykoff).Military and political careerAfter earning his bachelor's degree at Marquette in 1936, Metcalfe completed a master's degree at the University of Southern California in Los Angeles in 1939. Metcalfe taught political science and coached track at Xavier University in New Orleans, and served in the transportation corps of U.S. Army in World War II, rising to the rank of first lieutenant and awarded the Legion of Merit medal. After the war, he moved back to Chicago and later headed the state's athletic commission. In 1955, Metcalfe won the first of four elections as an alderman representing the South Side of Chicago. He ran for an open seat in Congress in 1970 as a Democrat and was easily elected from Illinois' first district. The seat had been filled for 28 years by William L. Dawson, who was retiring at age 84 due to poor health and then died less than a week after the 1970 election. Metcalfe was a co-founder of the Congressional Black Caucus (CBC) in 1971 and later was noted for breaking ranks with Chicago mayor Richard Daley after incidents of police brutality. Death and legacyMetcalfe was seeking a fifth term in 1978 when he died at his Chicago home on October 10 of an apparent heart attack at age 68.[1] Metcalfe is interred at Holy Sepulchre Cemetery in Alsip, southwest of Chicago. A federal office building in Chicago (at 77 W. Jackson Blvd.) was named for him upon its completion in 1991.[10] Metcalfe was inducted into the National Track and Field Hall of Fame in 1975 and named a member of the President's Commission on Olympic Sports. PersonalMetcalfe married Gertrude Pemberton on June 9, 1937 in Dallas, Texas. They divorced in Los Angeles, California in 1943. Metcalfe married Madalynne Fay Young in 1947 and they had one son.[11] He was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, Alpha Sigma Nu honor society,[12] and the Corpus Christi parish in Chicago's Bronzeville neighborhood. He converted to Catholicism in 1932, while an undergraduate at Marquette.[13][14] Ralph Metcalfe achieved worldwide fame as an Olympic athlete years before he became involved in politics on Chicago’s South Side. Like William Dawson, his predecessor from the predominantly black, urban Illinois district, Metcalfe rose through the ranks of the Chicago Democratic political machine before winning a seat in Congress. However, Metcalfe differentiated himself from other machine loyalists of the period by elevating race above local party interests. Metcalfe’s willingness to risk his political career to follow his conscience won him loyal support among the majority of his constituents and his black colleagues in the House. “I know the political reality of what I am doing, but I am prepared to let the chips fall where they may,” Metcalfe remarked. “I’m willing to pay whatever political consequences I have to, but frankly, I don’t think there will be any.… In the caucus we have decided to put the interests of black people first—above all else, and that means even going against our party or our political leaders if black interests don’t coincide with their positions.”1 Ralph Harold Metcalfe was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on May 29, 1910, to Marie Attaway, a seamstress, and Clarence Metcalfe, a stockyard worker.2 As a child, he moved with his family to the South Side of Chicago. After graduating from Chicago’s Tilden Technical School in 1930, Metcalfe attended Marquette University where he received a bachelor of philosophy degree in 1936. He completed his education by earning an M.A. in physical education from the University of Southern California in 1939. During high school Metcalfe began a long and successful career as a track athlete. “I was told by my coach that as a black person I’d have to put daylight between me and my nearest competitor,” Metcalfe recalled. “I forced myself to train harder so I could put that daylight behind me.”3 Metcalfe became a household name in the United States when he medaled in the 1932 and 1936 Olympics. During the infamous Berlin Games of 1936, Metcalfe and Jesse Owens led the American 400–meter relay team to a world record, much to the dismay of German onlookers, especially Adolf Hitler, who expected the German athletes to prove their superiority by sweeping all the track and field events.4 Years later, Owens credited Metcalfe with helping his black teammates overcome the many distractions they faced. “He said we were not there to get involved in the political situation. We were there for one purpose—to represent our country.”5 Following his retirement from competitive sports in 1936, Metcalfe taught political science and coached track at Xavier University in New Orleans until 1946. He also served in the U.S. Army Transportation Corps from 1942 to 1945, where he rose to the rank of first lieutenant and earned the Legion of Merit for his physical education training program. After World War II, Metcalfe returned to Chicago in 1945 to become director of the civil rights department of the Chicago Commission on Human Relations, a position he held until 1949. He then headed the Illinois State Athletic Commission from 1949 to 1952. In 1947, Metcalfe married Madalynne Fay Young. The couple had one child, Ralph Metcalfe, Jr.6 In 1952, Metcalfe began his political career by winning election as Chicago’s Third Ward Democratic committeeman. Quickly earning the respect and trust of Richard J. Daley, Chicago’s mayor and leader of the city’s powerful political machine, Metcalfe secured more prominent positions in the local government. After becoming an alderman in 1955, he was later selected by Daley to serve as president pro tempore of the Chicago city council.7 When the powerful but aging Representative William L. Dawson, a longtime member of the Democratic machine, decided to retire from the House, he chose Metcalfe to replace him in Congress. In the Democratic primary, Metcalfe faced A. A. (Sammy) Rayner, an alderman and an undertaker, who blamed the predominantly white power structure of Chicago for the problems facing many African Americans in the urban district. Running on a platform of “law and order,” Metcalfe defended his ties to Daley’s machine, reassuring voters that the political organization “is structured in a businesslike manner to get things done and, therefore, it is an asset.”8 With the backing of Daley and Dawson, Metcalfe defeated Rayner and went on to win election to the House easily, with 91 percent of the vote against Republican Jayne Jennings, a schoolteacher, a few days before Dawson’s death in November 1970.9 Metcalfe entered the House on January 3, 1971, and was assigned to the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries and the Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee; he served on both committees throughout his tenure in the House. Metcalfe’s appointment to the influential Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee marked the first time an African–American Member served on the panel in the 20th century.10 The Illinois Representative also served on the Post Office and Civil Service Committee during the 95th Congress (1977–1979). Metcalfe’s legislative focus in the House, like his predecessor’s, was assisting the residents on Chicago’s South Side. Using his experience as chairman of the Chicago city council’s housing committee, Metcalfe introduced legislation to increase the availability of home improvement loans and federal housing programs to benefit the many impoverished people living in his district. He also advocated funding for security measures to protect residents in public projects and fought to eliminate “redlining,” the practice of withholding funds for home loans and insurance from low–income neighborhoods. Defending the need for such measures, Metcalfe asserted, “It is essential that individuals living in our cities, or individuals of low or moderate income residing in rural areas, be provided with the means and incentive to remain in their communities.”11 As a strong proponent of gun control, the Illinois Representative introduced legislation to prohibit the manufacture and sale of handguns, stating, “The people in the First Congressional District of Illinois know the terror of uncontrolled handguns. They know that the only solution to this epidemic of violent handgun crime is an absolute ban on the manufacture, sale, and distribution of these weapons throughout the United States.”12 Throughout his House career, Metcalfe also advanced issues that extended beyond his congressional district. He drafted provisions to the Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act to combat discrimination in the industry present more than a decade after the passage of the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964.13 Concerned about the quality of health care for minorities, the Illinois Representative criticized the Richard M. Nixon administration for failing to support legislation aimed at improving health services for those most in need and exhorted his House colleagues to “design a health care package which adequately meets the needs and aspirations of poor and minority groups.”14 Drawing on his own athletic experience, Metcalfe cosponsored the Amateur Sports Act of 1978, which provided federal funding for American Olympic athletes and increased opportunities for minorities, women, and disabled Americans to participate in amateur sports.15 Although his legislative agenda focused heavily on domestic issues, Metcalfe had an interest in U.S. foreign policy. As chairman of the Merchant Marine and Fisheries Subcommittee on the Panama Canal, he advocated more opportunities for education, housing, and jobs in the Canal Zone and worked to secure the passage of legislation that eventually ceded American control of the Panama Canal.16 Like other African–American Members of the era, Metcalfe called for increased U.S. involvement in African affairs, especially in South Africa. In 1975 he introduced a measure to cease American support for South Africa to protest its government–sanctioned policy of racial discrimination. Metcalfe praised the recommendations of the Organization of African Unity (OAU) for the South African region, which included ending apartheid in South Africa and instituting majority rule in Rhodesia. “In order to insure [sic] that the tremendous potential for violent conflict in southern Africa, a potential born of people’s desire to throw off the yoke of oppression and racism, is not realized, it is imperative that the United States follow the lead of the OAU and reassess its own policies in Southern Africa.”17 Metcalfe received national attention when he publicly broke ranks in 1972 with Chicago Mayor Richard Daley, his friend and political ally, and the Democratic machine. Outraged by what he perceived as Daley’s lenient stance on police brutality in the black community—specifically with regard to a violent raid of the local Black Panthers and two incidents that involved the harassment of black dentists—Metcalfe declared, “the Mayor doesn’t understand what happens to black men on the streets of Chicago, and probably never will.”18 Metcalfe used his position on the Interstate and Foreign Commerce Committee to conduct public hearings for victims and witnesses of police brutality and organized a citizens’ group to lobby the city government for reforms.19 “I’ve always spoken out for my people—for what I believe but in the past I’ve tried to remedy situations on a case–by–case basis, trying to work within the party or official government circles,” Metcalfe said. “In the brutality field, however, I can’t just stand by while each and every case is investigated. I want the system changed.”20 When Metcalfe backed William Singer, Daley’s opponent in the 1975 Chicago mayoral primary, the powerful political boss retaliated by depriving the Illinois Representative of his Third Ward patronage positions and orchestrating a challenge in the 1976 Democratic primary for Chicago’s South Side congressional seat.21 In a fight against what he termed a “political dictatorship” in Chicago, Metcalfe asserted, “There is only one issue. The right of black people to choose their own public officials and not have them picked from downtown.”22 With the outspoken support of the Congressional Black Caucus (CBC)—an organization Metcalfe helped found in 1971—he handily defeated Daley aide Erwin A. France with more than 70 percent of the vote in the bitterly contested primary. “This is a people’s victory,” the Chicago Representative declared.23 After reapportionment in 1972, the metropolitan district continued to boast a predominantly black population, even with the significant change in boundaries that included a largely white neighborhood surrounding the University of Chicago. As with the two previous general elections for the Chicago congressional district, Metcalfe faced little Republican opposition, and he easily earned a seat in the 95th Congress.24 With the death of Mayor Daley in December of 1976, tensions eased between Metcalfe and the Chicago machine.25 However, Metcalfe called attention to racial discrimination in Chicago and also continued to try to improve police service for his constituents residing in impoverished neighborhoods. “If we want to strengthen and rebuild Chicago, then we must help the people who are sticking it out in the inner city to survive.”26 During the 95th Congress, Metcalfe demonstrated his determination to recognize the accomplishments of African Americans, sponsoring several resolutions to declare February as Black History Month. Metcalfe’s congressional career ended when he died suddenly of an apparent heart attack on October 10, 1978, only a month before his almost certain re–election to a fifth term. Representative Louis Stokes of Ohio praised Metcalfe’s dedication to his district and the CBC. “Ralph was a man who had the ability to inspire people,” Stokes recalled. “The type of individual who, as you came to know him, you would have to admire.”27 Footnotes1“Ralph Harold Metcalfe,” 14 October 1978, Washington Post: A16. 2David L. Porter, “Metcalfe, Ralph Harold,” American National Biography 15 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999): 386 (hereinafter referred to as ANB). ANB lists Metcalfe’s mother’s first name as Marie, whereas other sources indicate her first name was Mayme. 3“Rep. Ralph Metcalfe,” 11 October 1978, Chicago Tribune: D2. 4Jean R. Hailey, “Rep. Ralph H. Metcalfe Dies,” 11 October 1978, Washington Post: C8; Darius L. Thieme, “Ralph H. Metcalfe,” in Jessie Carney Smith, ed., Notable Black American Men (Farmington Hills, MI: Gale Research, Inc., 1999): 803–804 (hereinafter referred to as NBAM); Porter, “Metcalfe, Ralph Harold,” ANB. For more information on the 1936 Olympics, see Alan Gould, “Metcalfe Runs Second to Ohio Negro in Sprint Finals,” 4 August 1936, Washington Post: X15; and Shirley Povich, “What Price Olympic Glory?—America’s Sports Public Demands,” 16 August 1936, Washington Post: B5. 5Dorothy Collin, “Jesse Owens Recalls a Beloved Teammate,” 11 October 1978, Chicago Tribune: 1. 6Thieme, “Ralph H. Metcalfe,” NBAM. 7Hailey, “Rep. Ralph H. Metcalfe Dies.” 8Michael Kilian, “Daley Choices Win Key Tests,” 18 March 1970, Chicago Tribune: 1; Norman C. Miller, “A Primary in Chicago Between Two Blacks Is Big Test for Daley,” 24 February 1970, Wall Street Journal: 1. 9“Election Statistics, 1920 to Present,” available at http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electionInfo/index.aspx; Maurine Christopher, Black Americans in Congress (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1976): 264. 10Charles Stewart III, “Committee Hierarchies in the Modernizing House, 1875–1947,” American Journal of Political Science 36 (1992): 845–846. 11Congressional Record, House, 93rd Cong., 2nd sess. (30 April 1974): 12437–12438; Congressional Record, House, 93rd Cong., 2nd sess. (20 May 1974): 15592. 12Congressional Record, House, 94th Cong., 1st sess. (26 February 1975): 4491; Christopher, Black Americans in Congress: 265. 13Congressional Record, House, 94th Cong., 1st sess. (17 December 1975): 41339; Congressional Record, House, 94th Cong., 2nd sess. (28 January 1976): 1357; Porter, “Metcalfe, Ralph Harold,” ANB. 14Congressional Record, House, 93rd Cong., 1st sess. (31 January 1973): 2845–2846; C. Gerald Fraser, “Wider Health Care Urged for Blacks,” 12 December 1971, New York Times: 77. 15Congressional Record, House, 95th Cong., 2nd sess. (26 September 1978): 31671. 16Congressional Record, House, 95th Cong., 2nd sess. (18 April 1978): 10453–10454; Porter, “Metcalfe, Ralph Harold,” ANB; “Ralph Metcalfe,” Contemporary Black Biography, Volume 26 (Detroit, MI: Gale Group, 2000). 17Congressional Record, House, 94th Cong., 1st sess. (8 May 1975): 13646. 18R. W. Apple, Jr., “Black Leader’s Rebellion Is Hurting Daley Machine,” 10 May 1972, New York Times: 36; Nathaniel Sheppard, Jr., “19 Seeking House Seat Vacated by Chicago Mayor,” 8 July 1983, New York Times: A7. 19Congressional Record, House, 93rd Cong., 1st sess. (6 December 1973): 39929–39930; Christopher, Black Americans in Congress: 264. 20“Police Acts Create New Daley Critic,” 7 May 1972, Washington Post: A14. 21As was the case with other machine politicians, Metcalfe retained his local leadership positions in Chicago until his death. See Hailey, “Rep. Ralph H. Metcalfe Dies”; Barbara Reynolds, “Track Star Metcalfe Running Hard,” 7 March 1976, Chicago Tribune: 28. 22Vernon Jarrett, “Ralph Metcalfe Comes Out Fighting,” 23 January 1976, Chicago Tribune: A4; Barbara Reynolds, “Metcalfe Seeks New Term, Rips ‘Dictator,’” 12 November 1975, Chicago Tribune: 3. 23Barbara Reynolds, “Metcalfe Victory Seen as Freedom From Daley,” 17 March 1976, Chicago Tribune: 3; Reynolds, “Track Star Metcalfe Running Hard”; Vernon Jarrett, “France Has Bitter Taste of Politics,” 9 April 1976, Chicago Tribune: A4; “5 Congressmen Here to Aid Rep. Metcalfe,” 15 February 1976, Chicago Tribune: 20. 24“Election Statistics, 1920 to Present,” available at http://clerk.house.gov/member_info/electionInfo/index.aspx. 25“Ralph Metcalfe Is Dead at 68,” 11 October 1978, Los Angeles Times: E11. 26The Chicago Tribune printed an article based on a speech by Metcalfe that outlined his goals for improvements in law enforcement in Chicago. See “Police Protection Is Everyone’s Right,” 11 June 1977, Chicago Tribune: S10. 27Congressional Record, House, 95th Cong., 2nd sess. (11 October 1978): 35723.A sports event unlike any otherThe Olympic Games are unique. Athletes from the entire world take part.Their achievements are watched from both near and far by hundredsof millions of spectators.The five rings on the Olympic flag represent the international natureof the Games.What makes the Olympic Games different from other sports events?The Games are held every four years. They are the largest sporting celebrationin the number of sports on the programme, the number of athletes presentand the number of people from different nations gathered together at the sametime in the same place.The Games are held at intervals, but are part of a broader framework whichis that of the Olympic Movement. The purpose of the Olympic Movementis to promote the practice of sport all over the world and disseminatethe Olympic values. It is in this spirit that the Olympic Games are heldand celebrated.The Summer Games and the Winter GamesThe Olympic Games include the Games of the Olympiad (i.e. the SummerGames) and the Olympic Winter Games. The first edition of the modernSummer Games was held in 1896 in Athens (Greece), and the first OlympicWinter Games in 1924 in Chamonix (France).The word Olympiad designates the four-year period that separates eachedition of the Summer Games.Until 1992, the Summer and Winter Games were held in the same year,but since then, the Winter Games were moved two years from the SummerGames. The Summer and Winter Games continue to be organised onceevery four years.In the Summer Games, athletes compete in a wide variety of competitionson the track, on the road, on grass, in the water, on the water, in the openair and indoors, in a total of 28 sports.The Winter Games feature 7 sports practised on snow and ice, both indoorsand outdoors.The Modern Olympic Games Introduction 3The London 2012 OlympicGames were broadcastall over the world, via thetraditional media as well asonline and mobile platforms.They reached a record audienceestimated at 4.8 billion people.© The Olympic MuseumThe Modern Olympic Games Introduction 4HistoryIt was Pierre de Coubertin of France who dreamt up this ambitious project,although others before him had tried in vain to revive these Games. Drawinginspiration from the ancient Olympic Games, he decided to create the modernOlympic Games. With this purpose, he founded the International OlympicCommittee (IOC) in 1894 in Paris. The new committee set itself the objectiveof organising the first Olympic Games of modern times.The date of the first Games, 1896, marked the beginning of an extraordinaryadventure that has now lasted for over a century!11. OG Athenes 1896. Athletics.Discus Men – Robert GARRETT(USA) 1st.© 1896 / International OlympicCommittee (IOC)© The Olympic MuseumThe characteristicsof the modern OlympicGamesElements of the pastThe roots of the Olympic Games are to be found in Ancient Greece [see sheet“The Olympic Games in Antiquity”], and the first modern Games, in 1896, featuredmany references to this legacy of Greek Antiquity:› The Games were held in Athens, in Greece, the country where the ancient Gameswere held.› Most of the competitions were held in the ancient stadium (the PanathinaikoStadium), which had been restored for the occasion.› Most of the sports on the programme of the ancient Games were includedin the first modern Games.› The organisers invented a race inspired by an event in antiquity: the marathon.Generally speaking, the modern Games strive towards a more peaceful world.The Olympic Truce calling for a halt to all conflicts recalls the concept of the truceobserved during the Ancient Games.Sacred and respected throughout Ancient Greece, the Olympic Truce announcedby messengers before the Games allowed spectators, athletes and officialsto travel to and from Olympia in safety through the numerous battle zones.Today, the Olympic Truce is the subject of a United Nations resolution callingfor a halt to hostilities during the period of the Games and the search for meansof peaceful resolution in areas of tension. The athletes who support this initiativeare invited to sign a “Truce Wall” in the Olympic Village.InnovationsWhile the modern Games draw their inspiration from the past, they are alsoquite different.From the outset, Coubertin proposed:› Secular GamesThe modern Games are secular, unlike the ancient Games which were dedicatedto the gods.The Modern Olympic Games The characteristicsof the modern Olympic Games 5In antiquity, the PanathinaikoStadium in Athens hosted thesports competitions known asthe Panathenaea.The marathonThis race commemorates theexploit of a soldier who, in 490BC, ran from Marathon to tellthe people of Athens of theirvictory in the battle against thePersians, a distance of roughly34.5 kilometres.© The Olympic MuseumThe Modern Olympic Games 6› Games around the globeIn contrast with the Olympic Games of Antiquity, each edition of the modernGames takes place in principle in a different city and country.› Longer GamesIn ancient times, the Games were held first on one day, and finally over five days.Today the official duration is no more than 16 days.The Games are also evolving constantly:› Since 1896, athletes from all over the worldThe ancient Olympic Games were the preserve of free male Greek citizens,whereas the modern Games have always been open to athletes fromall over the world. The 245 participants in Athens in 1896 came from14 different countries.The 1912 Games in Stockholm (Sweden) were the first to boast the presenceof national delegations from the five continents. The universality of the modernOlympic Games was assured.Today, the Summer Games welcome athletes from every country of the world,without exception.› Since 1900, women join inAs in Ancient Greece, there were no female athletes at the first edition of the modernOlympic Games. In Athens in 1896, only men competed. At that time, female athletesfaced many prejudices. People worried that they would lose their femininity,over-develop their muscles or become sterile. They therefore had to overcomethis kind of attitude and gradually take their place at the Games. Women madetheir Olympic debut at the 1900 Games in Paris (France), in tennis and golf.Subsequently, over the course of the century, they gained access to more and moresports (e.g. swimming in 1912, athletics in 1928, volleyball in 1964, rowing in 1976,cycling in 1984 and football in 1996), but it was not until the 2012 Games in London,with the introduction of women’s boxing, that women could compete in all the sportson the programme. Since the 2004 Games in Athens, more than 40 per centof the athletes at the Games have been women.› Since 1924, Games for winter sportsWhen Coubertin revived the Olympic Games, only summer sports were included.In the 1920s, however, snow and ice sports began to enjoy soaring popularity.A number of IOC members decided to react to this, and, in 1924, it was decided11. OG Paris 1900. Tennis, singlesWomen – Hélène PREVOS© 1900 / International OlympicCommittee (IOC)The characteristicsof the modern Olympic Games© The Olympic Museumto hold an International Winter Sports Week in Chamonix (France): 258 athletesfrom 16 countries (mainly in Europe and North America) attended.This proved a great success and, two years later, this “Week” was officially recognisedas the first Olympic Winter Games. The future of an Olympic event dedicatedexclusively to snow and ice sports was assured.At the 2010 Games in Vancouver (Canada), a total of 2,566 athletes cametogether from 82 countries as diverse as Ghana, Brazil, New Zealandand Pakistan.› Since 1984, professional athletes at the GamesThe modern Olympic Games were long open only to amateur athletes, in line withPierre de Coubertin’s wishes. The IOC abolished this rule in 1984 (for the Gamesin Los Angeles), and since then professional athletes have also been able to take part.The rituals of the Opening and Closing CeremoniesThe Olympic Games begin and end with big celebrations, important ceremoniesin which various rituals express the identity of the Games. Today, these rituals are partof the protocol of the Games. They include the following elements:The Modern Olympic GamesOpening of the Games› the entry of the athletes into the stadiumwith their delegations (in alphabeticalorder, except for Greece which goesfirst, and the host country which bringsup the rear)› the declaration of the opening of theGames by the Head of State of the hostcountry› the address by the Games OrganisingCommittee President› the speech by the IOC President› the entry of the Olympic flag intothe stadium› the Olympic anthem› the symbolic release of doves (a symbolof peace)› the oath sworn by an athlete andan official from the host country (respectfor the rules)› the entrance of the flame and lightingof the cauldronClosing of the Games› handing over of the Olympic flagto the next Olympic host city (continuityof the Games)› gathering of the athletes in the stadium(brotherhood)› the extinguishing of the flame› the declaration of the closingof the Games by the IOC President7Most of this protocol had beenestablished by the timeof the 1920 Games in Antwerp(Belgium). It has been addedto over the years as the Gameshave evolved.1. OG London 2012. OpeningCeremony.© 2012 / International OlympicCommittee (IOC) / FURLONG,Christopher1The characteristicsof the modern Olympic Games© The Olympic MuseumThe Modern Olympic Games 8The protocol forms part of a much broader scenography and programme. The openingand closing ceremonies are an invitation to discover the culture of the country hostingthe Games, through music, song, dance, etc.Sport, art and cultureIn Ancient Greece, art and sport were seen as perfect partners. The ideal was to achieveharmony by exercising both the body and the mind.Pierre de Coubertin adopted this ideal for the modern Olympic Games and proposedincluding art and culture in the programme of the Games.On his initiative, architecture, sculpture, painting, literature and music competitionswere part of the Olympic Games from 1912 to 1948.Nowadays, the competitions have been replaced with cultural programmesthat are completely separate from the sports competitions. Plays, concerts, balletsand exhibitions are held in the city, region and even the country hosting the Games.Numerous artists, designers, architects, choreographers and musicians play an activepart in the success of the Games, be it through the construction of stadiums andother competition venues, the Look of the Games (logos, pictograms and mascots)or the opening and closing ceremonies.Whether through sport, art or culture,everyone can take part in the greatcelebration of the Olympic Games,which offer an opportunity to openup to and better understandother people.The characteristicsof the modern Olympic Games© The Olympic MuseumOlympic sports 9Olympic sportsThe Olympic programme includes all the sports in the Olympic Games. The IOCsets the programme and decides which sports will be included. The IOC alsohas the right to add or remove any sport, discipline or event.Sport − For a sport to be made an Olympic sport it has to be governedby an International Federation recognised by the IOCExemples:Swimming at the Games is governed by the International Swimming Federation (FINA);Skating by the International Skating Union (ISU).Discipline − An Olympic sport comprises one or several disciplines.Exemples:Water polo and diving are disciplines of swimming.Speed skating and figure skating are disciplines of skating.Event − A discipline includes one or more events or competitions.An event gives rise to a result for which medals and diplomas are awarded.Exemples:The 10m platform for women is a diving event.The men’s 500m is a speed skating event.Criteria for being an Olympic sportIn order to be included in the Olympic programme, a sport must be governedby an International Federation which complies with the Olympic Charterand applies the World Anti-Doping Code.If it is widely practised around the world and satisfies a number of criteriaestablished by the IOC Session, a recognised sport may be added to the Olympicprogramme.Since 2000, there has been little change to the number of sports on the programmeof the Summer and Winter Games, but rather changes to events in order to limit the sizeof the Games.Summer Games sportsIn Athens in 1896, nine sports were on the programme: athletics, cycling, fencing,The Modern Olympic Games11. OG Beijing 2008. Athletics,pole vault – final. ElenaISINBAEVA (RUS) 1st.© 2008 / International OlympicCommittee (IOC) / KISHIMOTO,Tsutomu© The Olympic Museum10gymnastics, weightlifting, wrestling, swimming, tennis and shooting.The Olympic programme has come a long way since then: some sports have beendiscontinued (e.g. polo and baseball); others were dropped and then reintroduced(e.g. archery and tennis), while several new sports have been added (e.g. triathlonand taekwondo).At the 2004 Games in Athens, the programme included the nine original sportsplus a further 19: rowing, badminton, baseball, basketball, boxing, canoe/kayak,equestrian sports, football, handball, hockey, judo, modern pentathlon, softball,taekwondo, table tennis, archery, triathlon, sailing and volleyball. This representeda total of 301 events!The two major sports on the programme of the Summer Games are athleticsand swimming. These are the most widely followed Olympic sports in the world.They also have the largest number of events and greatest number of participantsfrom different countries.Athletics consists of a wide range of events: jumping, throwing, and sprint,middle-distance and long-distance races. Some of these were performedat the ancient Olympic Games: foot races (varying distances), the javelin throw,the discus throw and the long jump.The first swimming competitions at the Olympic Games took place in the sea or in a river. Today competitions take place in a 50m swimming pool, usually indoors.The current programme includes the following disciplines: swimming (freestyle,breaststroke, backstroke and butterfly), water polo, diving and synchronisedswimming.Winter Games sportsWinter sports made their Olympic debut at … the Summer Games in Londonin 1908! Figure skating competitions were organised for men, women and pairs.The experience was repeated at the Antwerp Games in 1920, along with an icehockey tournament.It was in Chamonix in 1924 that winter sports finally got their own OlympicGames. Six sports were on the programme: bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, figureand speed skating, skiing (cross-country and ski jumping) and the military patrolrace.Some sports were missing from the official programme for several editionsof the Games before being reintroduced. One example is skeleton, which featuredat the 1928 and 1948 Games in St Moritz, before returning to the programmefor the 2002 Games in Salt Lake City.The number of sports at the Winter Games has remained relatively stable overthe years. At the Vancouver Games in 2010, there were seven sports – biathlon,bobsleigh, curling, ice hockey, luge, skating and skiing. However, the numberThe Modern Olympic Games Olympic sports1. OG London 2012, Swimming– Michael PHELPS (USA),© 2012 / International OlympicCommittee (IOC) / FURLONG,Christopher2. OG Vancouver 2010, Menice-hockey – Game for thebronze medal, Finland (FIN)3rd – Slovakia (SLO)© 2010 / International OlympicCommittee (IOC) / EVANS,Jason12 © The Olympic Museum11of events has increased considerably: in 2010, there were 86 on the programme!Of the 15 disciplines in the 2014 Olympic Winter Games in Sochi, only Nordiccombined is not yet open to women.The three main sports on the Winter Games programme are skating, skiingand ice hockey.Skating has the longest Olympic history, having figured for the first timeon the programme of the London Games in 1908. Women made their debutin figure skating at the Olympic Winter Games, but speed skating was not opento them until 1960. Held in the open air until 1956, the skating events now takeplace indoors.Skiing is the sport with the largest number of disciplines. Cross-country skiingis the oldest discipline and snowboarding is the newest one (1998 Gamesin Nagano, Japan). Alpine skiing appeared relatively late: it was on theprogramme of the 1936 Games, but it was not until the 1948 Games inSt Moritz (Switzerland) that a more complete programme for men and womenwas organised. In 1952, giant slalom was added to the programme. Introducedin 1988, the super-G is the newest Olympic Alpine skiing event.Ice hockey, like skating and skiing, is one of the sports that helped launchingthe Olympic Winter Games. Hockey is very popular and attracts large audiences.It is a spectacular sport in which the puck travels at speeds up to 180km/h.Demonstration sportsThanks to their popularity, the Games have provided a showcase for a numberof sports. These were known as demonstration sports, which featured asan addition to the Olympic programme until 1992, when this concept wasabandoned.› At the 1956 Games in Melbourne, there was Australian football, one of the nationalsports;› At the 1988 Games in Seoul, it was bowling, a sport unknown in the host country,Korea.› At the 1992 Games in Barcelona, it was Basque pelota, roller hockey andtaekwondo.There have been many different sports at the Winter Games. Some have beenfeatured as demonstration sports (e.g. skijoring, bandy, winter pentathlon andfreestyle skiing).For more information about the Olympic sports, go to the IOC websiteThe Modern Olympic Games Olympic sports11. OG Chamonix 1924,Figure skating.© 1924/ International OlympicCommittee (IOC)© The Olympic Museum1211. OG Beijing 2008. Athletics,100m Men – semi final, start.© 2008 / International OlympicCommittee (IOC) / KISHIMOTO,Tsutomu© The Olympic Museum13 The Modern Olympic Games Athletes at the Olympic GamesAthletes atthe OlympicGamesThe challenge of the GamesThe prospect of being selected for the Olympic Games is the dream of the majorityof athletes. Enormous reserves of willpower and many years of dedicated trainingare required to achieve such a goal. The athletes that qualify for the Gamescan consider themselves as being among the world’s best. They will becomeOlympians, whether or not they win a medal.Taking part in the Games is what matters to the majority of the competitors:having the honour of representing their country and marching behind their flagat the Opening Ceremony, mixing with elite athletes, and having the opportunityto give their best. That is what the spirit of the Olympic Games is all about!Pierre de Coubertin knew this already at the start of the 20th century:“ […] In these Olympiads, the important thing is not winning but taking part.[…] What counts in life is not the victory but the struggle; the essential thingis not to conquer but to fight well.” 2Almost a century later, at the Olympic Games in Sydney, the spirit was the same.Canadian athlete Perdita Felicien explains why taking part in the Games wasso important to her:“Even though I was eliminated in the preliminary round of the 100m hurdles,I would do it all over again in a heartbeat. Even though the months of religioustraining and the exhausting 30 hours of flight to Sydney only meant exactly13.21 seconds of running on the hottest track in the world that day, it wasbeyond worth it.” 3In order to participate in the Olympic Games, athletes have to abide bythe Olympic Charter and the rules of the International Federation (IF)responsible for their sport. The IFs organise qualification events, while the NationalOlympic Committee (NOC) of the athlete’s country is responsible for enteringathletes to the Games.Athletes with more than one nationality may compete for the country of theirchoice. However, if they have already represented one country either at the Gamesor another major sports event, they may not compete for a different countrybefore three years have elapsed.There is no age limit for competing in the Olympic Games, except for the oneWhat is the Olympic Charter?It is an official documentcontaining all the rules to befollowed and explaining the roleand mission of each OlympicMovement stakeholder.1. OG London 2012, OpeningCeremony, Athletes Paradeof the Costa Rica delegation.© 2012 / International OlympicCommittee (IOC) / EVANS,Jason2. Olympic Review, July 1908,p. 110. (Extract from a speechgiven at the Olympic Gamesin London in 1908).3. Comments made on herathletics team’s website,27 November 2000.1 © The Olympic Museum14 The Modern Olympic Games Athletes at the Olympic Gamesimposed by individual IFs for health reasons. In some sports, such as equestrian,fencing and sailing, athletes can enjoy very long Olympic careers, sometimesas long as 40 years!By entering the Olympic Games, athletes are making a commitment to respectthe Olympic values and agree to undergo doping tests. Throughout the Games,tests are carried out under the authority of the IOC and its Medical Commission.Tests may be conducted before or during the Games.For individual sports, tests are performed on each athlete who places amongthe top five in each event, plus two other athletes (in the heats or the final)chosen at random.For team sports, or other sports in which teams are rewarded, testingis performed throughout the period of the Olympic Games.Life in the Olympic VillageUpon their arrival in the host city, athletes stay in the Olympic Village. While atthe Games, their time is not devoted exclusively to competing: it is alsoan opportunity for them to meet other athletes from different countriesand cultures. Communal life is good for encouraging contact between athletesfrom different sports or representatives from remote countries. All inhabitantsof the Village agree: it is not about the comfort of the surroundings or the qualityof services, what counts is the relationships created between athletesof the entire world.Anita L. De Frantz, Olympian and IOC member, said of her experience in the Village:“For two to four weeks, the Village becomes the home for the elite athletesof the world. It was there that I realised that excellence comes in every shape,size, race and sex. It was there that I realised that an Olympian is one whocan respect every individual based on the effort that it takes to becomean Olympian. It was there that I learned that each sport takes special skillsand determination for a person to ascend to the top.” 2Today’s Olympic Village is almost a city! It is usually located close to thecompetition venues and its construction is taken very seriously during preparationsfor the Games. In London in 2012, for example, the Village accommodatedover 17,000 athletes and officials!Inhabitants of the village benefit from many advantages. They can eat in the Villagerestaurant 24 hours a day, have their hair cut, go clubbing or attend eveningconcerts.When the Games have finished, the Olympic Village becomes a new residentialarea for the city, and the housing is sold or rented to the local population.Athletes have not always benefitted from this type of accommodation.1. OG London 2012, Athleteswhile jogging in the OlympicVillage.© 2012 / International OlympicCommittee (IOC) / EVANS,Jason2. Olympic Message, no. 33,July 1992.1 © The Olympic Museum15 The Modern Olympic Games Athletes at the Olympic GamesBefore the Los Angeles Games in 1932 they stayed in a variety of places:Shipshape accommodationThere was no Olympic Village for the athletes at the first few Olympic Games.Some of them stayed in hotels or hostels. Others chose cheaper accommodationin schools or barracks.And some slept in the boats they had taken to the Olympic city. This was the caseat the Amsterdam Games in 1928, when the Americans, Italians and Finns stayedin the harbour!All in the same villageThe first true Olympic Village was built for the 1932 Games in Los Angeles.Athletes (men only) from 37 countries ate, slept and trained together.For the first time certain community services were provided: a hospital, a fire stationand a post office.In the early days women stayed in hotels, not the Olympic Village. It was not untilthe 1956 Games in Melbourne that the Olympic Village was open to both sexes.© The Olympic Museum16 The Modern Olympic Games VICTORYVictoryThe moment of victory is symbolised by the athlete stepping onto the podiumto receive his or her medal. Yet this ceremony has not always existed!The various elements of the ceremony entered Olympic history at different times.THE MEDAL’S ICONOGRAPHYThe Summer Games medalsIn the beginning, Olympic medals varied from one Olympiad to the next. At the firstmodern Games in Athens in 1896, winners were rewarded with an olive wreathand a silver medal, while the runners-up received a bronze medal and a laurelwreath. Gold, silver and bronze medals were not awarded until 1904.From the Amsterdam Games in 1928, when the medals were standardised,until the 2000 Games in Sydney, the medals remained almost unchanged.The obverse showed a seated, wingless figure of Victory holding a wreath in onehand and a palm frond in the other. In the background appeared an arena similarto the Coliseum in Rome. The reverse had to show a victorious athlete beingborne upon the shoulders of the crowd. Since 1972, only the obverse of the medalremained the same. The reverse was modified for each Olympiad.Then, in 2004, the iconography changed dramatically. A representation of Nikefrom the Olympia Museum now features on the obverse of the summer Gamesmedals. She appears to be descending from the sky to land in the PanathinaikoStadium, recalling the place where the first modern Games were held in Athensin 1896. In the background the Acropolis can be seen.The Winter Games medalsThe Winter Games medals are not subject to the same constraints. There areno rules stipulating a particular shape or design. Even the materials may vary:the medals of the Albertville Games (France) included a crystal disc;the Lillehammer (Norway) medals had a granite element, and the medalsof the Nagano Games (Japan) were partially worked in lacquer. In fact,every Olympic Winter Games has seen an original medal designed.Medal ceremoniesSince the Olympic Winter Games in Lake Placid (USA) in 1932, the medals havebeen awarded on a podium. The winner takes the centre spot, on the higheststep. He or she receives a gold medal and the title of Olympic champion.The second placed athlete is to the winner’s right and receives a silver medal. The1. Athenes 2004, winner’smedal (gold)© IOC1 © The Olympic Museum17third placed athlete is to the winner’s left and receives a bronze medal.The national flags of the three winners are hoisted and the national anthemof the Olympic champion is played.The first eight in each event receive a diploma and their names are read out.Only the first three receive a medal in addition.Celebrity of the championsAfter the Olympic Games, the champions often become superstars and rolemodels for many people. The Olympic Charter stipulates that the namesof the athletes who win a gold medal must be engraved on the wallsof the main stadium in the city hosting the Games.However, a medal is not always a guarantee of celebrity. If it is won in a little knownsport with low media coverage, a medal alone will not suffice to attract the interestof the sponsors or the general public.But whether or not they are winners, everyone who takes part in the Gamestakes home with them the memory of an exceptional human experience.The Modern Olympic Games VICTORY11. OG Vancouver 2010,Medal ceremony for crosscountry ski, 50km Men massstart free.© 2010 / International OlympicCommittee (IOC)© The Olympic Museum18 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their eraThe Games and their eraThe Olympic Games are much more than just a series of sports competitions.Technological progress in the last century helped turn them into an internationalevent eagerly awaited and followed by people all over the world. Everything thathappens during the Games is reported and analysed by thousands of journalistsand experts. So it is quite understandable that, at certain points in recenthistory, governments have exploited the Games for political or diplomatic ends(sometimes, sadly, to the detriment of sport).Developments in technologyIn little over a century, the Olympic Games have become a global event. Two majortechnological revolutions have contributed to this: in transport and the media.Improved transport – easier access to the GamesDepending on the city and country hosting the Games, athletes are obligedto travel greater or lesser distances. For the 1904 Games in St Louis and the1932 Games in Los Angeles, in the USA, the number of participants was muchlower because many athletes were unable to make and afford such a long journey.The majority of host cities prior to World War II were European, and theathletes who took part in the Games were mostly Westerners.In 1956, the Games took place in Oceania (Australia). For the first time, mostof the 3,178 competitors travelled by plane to Melbourne. This noveldevelopment, which was possible thanks to the growth of air transport, quicklybecame essential to the organisation of the Olympic Games.In 1964 it was the turn of the Asian continent to host the Games, whichwere held in the city of Tokyo in Japan; then, in 1968, it was Latin America,with the Games in Mexico City.The Olympic Games have now been held on every continent except Africa.Development of the media - Games accessible to everyoneTelevision made an enormous contribution to the growing popularity of theOlympic Games. The first tests were carried out in 1936 and 1948. And the firstlive television broadcast of the competitions was in 1956, at the Winter Gamesin Cortina d’Ampezzo (Italy). Beginning with the 1960 Games in Rome (Italy),the majority of the European continent benefited from live broadcasts of thecompetitions. For the United States, Canada and Japan, a tape was flown outevery day, which meant that the competitions could be screened with just a fewhours’ delay. With a couple of weeks’ delay, the images were transferred ontoA long journey − For the 1932Games in Los Angeles, Europeanathletes first had to travel to NewYork by boat. They then crossedthe American continent by trainto Los Angeles (a total travel timeof three weeks!). They returnedthe same way.Some competitors had to saveup their holiday entitlement forthree years in order to have the10 weeks’ leave they needed forthe Olympic adventure!© The Olympic Museum19 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their erafilm and sent to Asia, Africa, Oceania and South America. The Olympic audienceended up being far larger than just the spectators present in the stadium.Since the 1964 Games in Tokyo (Japan), satellites have transmitted imageswith just a few seconds’ delay. Today, viewers all over the world can followthe champions’ achievements live. In 1968, the Olympic Winter Games inGrenoble (France) were the first to be broadcast live on colour television.Thanks to further technological developments, picture quality has improvedenormously and has reached a high level of perfection. Slow motion shots meanthat an athlete’s movements can be seen in great detail and underwater cameraseven take the audience into the swimming pool with the competitors.Television networks buy broadcasting rights for the Games, thus providingapproximately half of the Olympic Movement’s income. The IOC nonenethelessenables less well-off broadcasters to show coverage of the Olympic Games.This means that sports lovers all over the world can follow the performancesof the champions.This has helped the Olympic Games to become one of the most watchedsporting events in the world!Political and diplomatic exploitation of the GamesBeing at the forefront of the international stage, the Olympic Games havethe potential to be used as a propaganda tool and an instrumentof political interests.Here are some of the better-known examples› 1936 in Berlin (Germany): the Nazi regime appropriated the Games. In the yearsleading up to 1936, several governments and sports organisations expressedtheir concerns about the regime and its policies. The threat of a boycott hungover the Games. In the end, it was more individual convictions that preventedcertain athletes from attending.› 1956 in Melbourne (Australia): the Suez crisis and Soviet oppressionin Hungary provoked a strong reaction from some countries, which refusedto send their athletes to the Games.› 1968 in Mexico City (Mexico): American athletes Tommy Smith and John Carlosdemonstrated against the racism in the USA. As they stood on the podiumto receive their medals for the 200m, they raised black-gloved fists and bowedtheir heads when the American flag was raised. This gesture was their wayof showing their support for the “Black Power” movement which was fightingthe discrimination against black people in the USA. As a result, they weredisqualified.› 1972 in Munich (Germany): Palestinian terrorists took Israeli athletes hostage.What is a boycott? −It is the voluntary severingof relations with a person,country or other groupin order to exert pressure.Boycotts at the Olympic Gamesoccur when a governmentrefuses to allow its athletesto attend the Games.11. OG London 2012,Photographers at the WomenTriathlon© 2012 / International OlympicCommittee (IOC) / FURLONG,Christopher© The Olympic Museum20 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their eraThe event ended in tragedy, with nine hostages executed and the deathof a policeman and two other members of the Israeli delegation. The terroristswere killed by the police.› 1976 in Montreal (Canada): 22 countries (mostly African) boycotted the Gamesto protest against a recent tour of South Africa, which imposed apartheid,by the New Zealand rugby team.› 1980 in Moscow (Soviet Union): the United States called for a global boycottin response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. American athletes wereforbidden to take part in the Games under threat of having their passportsconfiscated. Other countries followed the US example and stayed awayfrom Moscow.› 1984 in Los Angeles (USA): in response to the American boycott of 1980,the Soviet Union refused to attend the Games. The official reasons givenwere the commercialisation of the Games and insufficient guaranteesof athletes’ safety.The diplomatic role of the GamesIf the Games are used for political ends, the Olympic ideal is placed under threat.Nevertheless, the Olympic Games can be used to improve relations betweencountries and communities.› Since the 1950s, the Olympic Games have provided an opportunity fornewly created countries to show the world they exist. Their appearanceat the Games has often led to more widespread international recognition(e.g. certain African countries, republics of the former Soviet Union).It has even been the case that the participation of certain athletes in the Gameshas preceded the political creation of their country (e.g. Timor Leste, a smallcountry located next to Indonesia, which has been independent since 2002).› The end of the apartheid regime allowed South Africa to participate againin the Olympic Games at the 1992 Games in Barcelona (Spain). The victory lap,hand-in-hand, of Ethiopia’s Derartu Tulu, who won the women’s 10,000 metres,and her South African rival Elana Meyer symbolised this change and becameone of the highlights of these Games.› At the Opening Ceremony of the 2000 Games in Sydney (Australia), SouthKorea and North Korea paraded together under a single flag. This act wasunprecedented since the breakdown in diplomatic relations betweenthe two countries after the Korean War (1950-1953).› Also in Sydney, the status of the Aborigines was front page news, and severalevents were organised to make their claims known. The final stage of the torchrelay was entrusted to Aboriginal athlete Cathy Freeman, and the cultureof the Aboriginal people was a highlight of the Opening Ceremony.11. OG Barcelona 1992Athletics. 10000m Women –final, Derartu TULU (ETH) 1stand Elana MEYER (RSA) 2nd.© 1992 / IOPP / SASAHARA,Koji© The Olympic Museum21 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their eraThe Geography of the GamesGames of the Olympiad (Summer Games)Olympiad Year City Country ContinentI 1896 Athens Greece EuropeII 1900 Paris France EuropeIII 1904 St Louis USA North AmericaIV 1908 London United Kingdom EuropeV 1912 Stockholm Sweden EuropeVI 1916 World War I: The Olympiad was not celebratedVII 1920 Antwerp Belgium EuropeVIII 1924 Paris France EuropeIX 1928 Amsterdam The Netherlands EuropeX 1932 Los Angeles USA North AmericaXI 1936 Berlin Germany EuropeXII 1940 World War II: The Olympiad was not celebratedXIII 1944 World War II: The Olympiad was not celebratedXIV 1948 London United Kingdom EuropeXV 1952 Helsinki Finland EuropeXVI 1956 MelbourneStockholm (Equestrian GamesAustraliaSwedenOceaniaEuropeXVII 1960 Rome Italy EuropeXVIII 1964 Tokyo Japan AsiaXIX 1968 Mexico City Mexico Latin AmericaXX 1972 Munich Germany EuropeXXI 1976 Montreal Canada North AmericaXXII 1980 Moscow USSR EuropeXXIII 1984 Los Angeles USA North AmericaXXIV 1988 Seoul South Korea AsiaXXV 1992 Barcelona Spain EuropeXXVI 1996 Atlanta USA North AmericaXXVII 2000 Sydney Australia OceaniaXXVIII 2004 Athens Greece EuropeXXIX 2008 Beijing China AsiaXXX 2012 London United Kingdom EuropeXXXI 2016 Rio de Janeiro Brazil Latin America1. OG Helsinki 1952Men’s 10km walk: medalceremony© 1952 / International OlympicCommittee (IOC)1 © The Olympic Museum22 The Modern Olympic Games The Games and their eraWinter GamesNumber Year City Country Continent1st 1924 Chamonix France Europe2nd 1928 St Moritz Switzerland Europe3rd 1932 Lake Placid USA North America4th 1936 Garmisch-Partenkirchen Germany Europe1940 World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated1944 World War II: The Olympiad was not celebrated5th 1948 St Moritz Switzerland Europe6th 1952 Oslo Norway Europe7th 1956 Cortina d’Ampezzo Italy Europe8th 1960 Squaw Valley USA North America9th 1964 Innsbruck Austria Europe10th 1968 Grenoble France Europe11th 1972 Sapporo Japan Asia12th 1976 Innsbruck Austria Europe13th 1980 Lake Placid USA North America14th 1984 Sarajevo Yugoslavia Europe15th 1988 Calgary Canada North America16th 1992 Albertville France Europe17th 1994 Lillehammer Norway Europe18th 1998 Nagano Japan Asia19th 2002 Salt Lake City USA North America20th 2006 Turin Italy Europe21th 2010 Vancouver Canada North America22th 2014 Sotchi Russia Europe23th 2018 PyeongChang South Korea Asia1. OG Sydney 2000, ClosingCeremony – Gatheringof athletes in the stadium.© 2000 / Kishimoto / IOC /NAGAYA, Yo1The Olympiads are counted even if the Games do not take place!© The Olympic Museum23 The Modern Olympic Games Activities - Selective BibliographyActivitiesSchools – subject area: human and social sciencesLook at a globe or a map of the world and locate the Olympic Games host cities.Discuss the geographical distribution of the Summer and Winter Games.Write an article on an athlete who has taken part in the Games but who didnot win a medal: describe his/her feelings, emotions and experience.Find out about an Olympic sport. Pick a sport you don’t know fromthe list of sports on the programme of the Summer or Winter Games. Do some researchand prepare a fact sheet on it, including the names of some athletes who practisethe sport.Imagine some costumes that could be used at the opening ceremonyof the next Olympic Games. Choose a theme and sketch some designs.Identify some other major events that bring people together like the OlympicGames. Make a list of them and identify their similarities and differences.Find some other examples of the interplay between the Olympic Gamesand the historical, political or cultural situation of the time.Selective BibliographyYoung readers› The Olympic Museum. How well do you know the Olympic Games?Lausanne: The Olympic Museum, 3rd edition, 2011› Clive Gifford.Summer Olympics: the definitive guide to the world's greatestsports celebrationBoston: Kingfisher, 2004› David Fischer. The encyclopedia of the summer OlympicsNew York [etc.]: Franklin Watts, 2003› Middleton, Haydn. Modern Olympic GamesChicago: Heinemann Library, 2000© The Olympic Museum24 The Modern Olympic GamesTeachers› David Miller. The official history of the Olympic Games and the IOC: Athensto London 1984-2012 / by David MillerEdinburgh: Mainstream, 2012

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